Common Elements of Eastern Religion Essay

Many religions of the world have eight elements in common. The elements are a belief system, community, central myths, ritual, ethics, characteristic emotional experiences, material expression, and sacredness. These elements help shape religions and the people who believe in them. In this paper I discuss how these elements are similar or how they differ in each of a few of indigenous religions. Unique in their own way there are numerous religious traditions, some of the religion traditions include: Buddhism – this is a means of existing based on the experience of Siddhartha Gautama, Christianity – earth’s largest belief, foundation of Jesus Christ teachings, Hinduism – collection of faiths, embedded in the religious thoughts of India. Islam – discovered by the Prophet Muhammad. These religious traditions along with numerous others vary from each other, but they serve the same purpose. A relationship with the divine is essential in all beliefs of religion without communication and connection with the divine, the challenges, tribulations and experiences encountered daily becomes difficult to handle because the testing of his or her faith and being disobedient to the word of God. The relationship as well as the fellowship with the divine helps him or her to walk in the light and to live in total honesty toward God as well as with each other, without the consistent relationship and fellowship it causes he or she to be out of character and have broken fellowship with the divine. Sacred time is the â€Å"time of eternity† (Molloy, 2010, p. 43). The schedule or activities that he or she encounters daily is determine by the effective use of the clock throughout our lives. Within the religious sector sacred time for numerous religions is valued in different ways. Sacred time allows the believer to come in contact with his or her thought of being set apart. Religion provides an individual the sense of purpose for living and security. The belief in a higher power provides comfort to a human. The knowledge of how we began tells us the reason why we are here and where we are going. This knowledge or awareness is often the driving force behind the  belief of one God, a supreme being, or some call it the sacred. Let us have a look at Christianity and its teachings, and how the Christians are organized. During this process one will see the relationship between Christianity and other religions. The origin of each of the tales in these special books is determined to have begun with a prophet who communicated directly with God. Some of the stories appear to have a mythical origin. For example, in the Bible, Jesus (May peace and blessings be upon him) is believed to have died and risen from the dead again. References Molloy, M.. (2010). Experiencing the world’s religions: Traditions, challenge, and change. Retrieved from Molloy, M., REL/133 website.

Distinctive Marketing, IT Capabilities, and Strategic Types: A Cross-National Investigation

Distinctive Marketing and Information Technology Capabilities and Strategic Types: A Cross-National Investigation ABSTRACT Keywords: strategic typology, firm capabilities, cross-national, Japan, China The authors examine the relationship between strategic type and development of distinctive marketing, market-linking, technology, and information technology (IT) capabilities to implement innovation strategy. They hypothesize that prospectors must build technical and IT capabilities, whereas defenders develop market-linking and marketing capabilities. The authors collect data from 709 firms across the United States, Japan, and China.They find support for their capability hypotheses, as well as for some of their cross-national hypotheses that are based on cultural and business environment differences among the three countries. In particular, they find support for the hypotheses that Japanese firms have greater technology and IT capabilities than U. S. firms of the same strategic type. Th ey conclude with implications for management. The strategic typology of Miles and Snow (1978) has received much attention in the marketing and management literature over the past two decades (e. g. Conant, Mokwa, and Varadarajan 1990; Dyer and Song 1997, 1998; Griffin and Hauser 1996; Gupta, Raj, and Wilemon 1986; McDaniel and Kolari 1987; McKee, Varadarajan, and Pride 1989; Parry and Song 1993, 1994; Ruekert and Walker 1987; Song and Xie 2000; Walker et al. 2003). Almost 30 years after its initial appearance in the literature, their typology is viewed widely as having stood the test of time and is still the most popular and commonly accepted model of strategic types in the management literature, having been applied in many different industry settings (DeSarbo et al. 005; DeSarbo et al. 2006; Hambrick 2003). Miles and Snow envision strategy as the patterns in the decisions by which a strategic business unit (SBU) aligns itself with its environment, and they categorize SBUs according to these patterns. The critical underlying variable in their typology is the rate of change in an SBU’s products or markets. Using an exploratory empirical study, Miles and Snow propose four strategic types—prospectors, analyzers, defenders, and reactors—and suggest that each of the first three types chooses a different competitive strategy ith respect to products and/or markets: Prospectors will innovate technologically and seek out new markets, analyzers will prefer a â€Å"second-but-better† strategy, and defenders will focus on maintaining a secure niche in a relatively stable Michael Song, Robert W. Nason, and C. Anthony Di Benedetto Journal of International Marketing  © 2008, American Marketing Association Vol. 16, No. 1, 2008, pp. 4–38 ISSN 1069-031X (print) 1547-7215 (electronic) 4 product or service area.Miles and Snow suggest that all three of these strategic types can be successful if the SBU matches its strategy to the competitive en vironment and develops and deploys appropriate capabilities. Capabilities have been broadly defined as â€Å"complex bundles of skills and accumulated knowledge that enable firms [or SBUs] to coordinate activities and make use of their assets† (Day 1990, p. 38). In this article, we examine the relationship between Miles and Snow’s (1978) strategic type and four capability constructs: technology, market linking, marketing, and information technology (IT).Day (1994) suggests that both technology and market-linking capabilities (or â€Å"insideout† and â€Å"outside-in† capabilities, respectively) are critical to sustained competitive advantage and superior performance (see also Day 1990; Day and Wensley 1988). Technology capabilities, which enable the organization to improve production process efficiencies and ultimately reduce its costs and increase its competitiveness, include financial management, cost control, technology development, logistics, manufact uring, and other processes with an internal emphasis.Market-linking capabilities, which enable the organization to use its technology capabilities to exploit marketplace opportunities, include market sensing, channel bonding, customer linking, technology monitoring, and spanning processes such as purchasing and new product development (Day 1994). Marketing capabilities, such as customer and competitive knowledge, skill in market segmentation and targeting, and effective marketing program design, should also be related to an organization’s performance. In a ioneering study, Conant, Mokwa, and Varadarajan (1990) link marketing capabilities to the four strategic types and find that prospectors are superior in marketing capabilities. The marketing literature suggests that obtaining market and competitive information and diffusing it throughout the organization lead to better market orientation, better performance, and sustainable competitive advantage (Day 1994; Jaworski and Kohl i 1993). The literature also suggests that IT capabilities are increasingly important means to these ends.Research in both the marketing and new product streams has recognized the difficulty of communication across functional boundaries and has identified ways to improve both the quantity and quality of information (Dyer and Song 1997, 1998; Griffin and Hauser 1992, 1993, 1996; Montoya-Weiss and Calantone 1994; Parry and Song 1993, 1994; Ruekert and Walker 1987; Song, Thieme, and Xie 1998; Song and Xie 2000; Swink and Song 2007). All four capability constructs include significant marketing processes. The original, exploratory Miles and Snow (1978) research finds relationships between firm capabilities andInformation Technology Capabilities and Strategic Types 5 strategic types in a limited number of industries. A subsequent study in this research stream empirically examines the relationships between marketing capabilities and strategic types and also validates a scale for assessing a business unit’s strategic type (Conant, Mokwa, and Varadarajan 1990). Two recent studies by DeSarbo and colleagues (2005, 2006) propose and empirically test models that include a range of capabilities in addition to marketing capabilities.DeSarbo and colleagues (2005) use SBU data from three countries (the United States, China, and Japan) to derive a descriptive strategic typology that improves on the Miles and Snow typology in terms of explanatory power; this study is extended by DeSarbo and colleagues (2006) to a predictive model that examines causalities between strategic capabilities and SBU performance. The first objective of the current study is to examine the relationships between an SBU’s strategic type and its development of the four distinctive organizational capabilities technology, market linking, marketing, and IT). This research extends the previously mentioned research stream (Conant, Mokwa, and Varadarajan 1990; DeSarbo et al. 2005; DeSarbo et al. 200 6) in that we seek to quantify and to better understand these relationships. The second objective is to build and test hypotheses regarding cross-national differences and their effects on the relationships between strategic type selection and the capabilities, a topic in which no empirical work has been conducted so far. We gather empirical data from three countries: the United States, China, and Japan.As China and Japan are the two largest East Asian economies, and together with the United States make up the three largest economies worldwide as measured by purchasing power (World Bank 2000), it is important to examine how firms from these countries compare with respect to their capabilities and strategies. Although DeSarbo and colleagues (2005) use a three-country database to build their descriptive typology, the research does not use the extant international marketing and management literature to build or test hypotheses of cross-national differences.We believe that the cross-nati onal hypothesis testing constitutes a clear extension to the work of Conant, Mokwa, and Varadarajan (1990) and DeSarbo and colleagues (2005, 2006). We first propose a set of four hypotheses relating an SBU’s relative capabilities to its selection of strategic type, as well as four additional hypotheses expressing expected crossnational differences in the magnitudes of the capabilities. We then test these hypotheses using a data set of 709 managers from the United States, Japan, and China. Our empirical results largely confirm these hypotheses. We conclude by 6 Michael Song, Robert W. Nason, and C.Anthony Di Benedetto providing theoretical implications and some possible prescriptions for managers seeking to improve their organization’s strategy selection. In this section, we define the Miles and Snow (1978) typology and discuss the implication of the strategic selection. We then define the four capability constructs and develop four hypotheses relating the capability co nstructs to strategic type. The Miles and Snow (1978) strategic types differ in the rate at which they change products or markets in response to environmental change. According to Miles and Snow, prospectors are the leaders of change in their industry.They operate within a broad product-market domain that undergoes periodic redefinition (Conant, Mokwa, and Varadarajan 1990; Dyer and Song 1997). They value being â€Å"first in† in new product and market areas as market pioneers even if not all these efforts prove to be highly profitable (Robinson and Fornell 1985; Robinson, Fornell, and Sullivan 1992). They often need to respond rapidly to early signals involving areas of opportunity, and these responses often lead to a new round of competitive actions. Nevertheless, prospectors may not maintain market strength in all the areas they enter.They compete principally through launching new products and meeting new marketplace opportunities. Consequently, they devote significant res ources to new product development, market research, and other marketing expenses (Hambrick 1983; McDaniel and Kolari 1987; Shortell and Zajac 1990; Walker et al. 2003). Prospectors also rely on close ties with the channel of distribution to anticipate customer needs and environmental changes (Walker et al. 2003). Sony’s audio products SBU, which is responsible for innovations such as the Walkman, is an example of a typical prospector organization.Defenders attempt to locate and maintain a secure niche in a relatively stable product or service area. They are less risk oriented than prospectors; typically they do not look outside well-defined product-market domains for new opportunities (McDaniel and Kolari 1987; Shortell and Zajac 1990). Rather than invest time in new product or market development, they tend to offer a more limited range of products or services than their competitors, and they focus on resource efficiency and cost-cutting process improvements to try to protect their domain by offering higher quality, superior service, lower prices, and so forth (Hambrick 1983).Defenders are normally not at the forefront of developments in the industry. Walker and colleagues (2003) distinguish between two defender strategies: price cutting and competitive differentiation. Unlike Sony’s audio SBU, Matsushita’s audio division, a typical defender organization, is likely to focus not on developing products but rather on cutting manufacturing costs (Lieberman and Montgomery 1988). HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT The Miles and Snow Strategic Typology Information Technology Capabilities and Strategic Types 7 Analyzers show qualities of both defenders and prospectors.They attempt to maintain a stable, limited line of products or services, while moving out quickly to follow a carefully selected set of the more promising new developments in the industry (Conant, Mokwa, and Varadarajan 1990; Dyer and Song 1997). Analyzers are seldom â€Å"first in† with new products or services. However, by carefully monitoring the actions of major competitors in areas compatible with their stable product-market base, they are frequently â€Å"second in† with a more cost-efficient product or service (Conant, Mokwa, and Varadarajan 1990; Dyer and Song 1997).For example, they might develop a new product in a stable market domain or sell established products in new geographic markets or through new distribution channels. They can operate in different domains, perhaps one stable and one more turbulent (McDaniel and Kolari 1987). Miles and Snow (1978, p. 73) characterize analyzers as â€Å"avid followers of change,† always ready to pursue a promising, emerging product or market with a later-entrant, â€Å"second-but-better† strategy (Robinson, Fornell, and Sullivan 1992).They can initiate product and/or market development, but less often than prospectors; at the same time, they can focus on stability and efficiency, but to a lesser extent than defenders (Hambrick 1983). Reactors typically lack long-term plans and any consistent strategy, instead reacting to environmental pressures as necessary (McDaniel and Kolari 1987). Empirical study has suggested that prospectors, analyzers, and defenders all perform well (Conant, Mokwa, and Varadarajan 1990; Miles and Snow 1978) and generally outperform reactors.We are interested primarily in the relative capabilities of the three potentially successful archetypal strategic types, so we do not explicitly include reactors in our hypotheses. We have gathered data from reactor organizations, however, and included them in our analysis section. To create economic value, sustain competitive advantage, and achieve superior profitability, an organization requires a wide range of capabilities. Although it would be impossible to list them all, certain categories of capabilities common to many organizations have been identified and used in prior research (e. . , Day 1994; DeSarbo et al. 2006). Technology capabilities—such as financial management, cost control, technology development, and logistics—enable an organization to keep costs down and to differentiate its offerings from those of competitors. Market-linking capabilities—such as sensing market trends, channel and customer linking, and technology monitoring—enable an organization to be responsive to changing customer needs and to use its technical capabilities effectively to exploit external possibilities (Day 1994). Marketing capabilities—such as skill in segmentation,Organizational Capabilities 8 Michael Song, Robert W. Nason, and C. Anthony Di Benedetto targeting, pricing, and advertising—enable the organization to take advantage of its market-sensing and technological capabilities and to implement effective marketing programs (Song and Parry 1997a, 1997b). Finally, IT capabilities enable the organization to diffuse market information effectively across all rel evant functional areas so that it can direct new product development. Not all organizations will have all of these capabilities (Day and Nedungadi 1994; Day and Wensley 1988).Furthermore, organizations will solidify and even develop their particular capabilities through time according to their strategic type, as Miles and Snow’s (1978) classification posits. For example, prospectors tend to compete by anticipating new product or marketplace opportunities and by implementing technological innovation; continued, successful prospecting will have the effect of strengthening inside-out and IT capabilities. The subsequent sections explore the hypothesized relationships between strategic type and organizational capabilities.Market-linking and -sensing capabilities enable the organization to compete by sensing market changes effectively, anticipating shifts in the market environment, creating and retaining durable links with customers, and creating strong bonds with channel members s uch as wholesalers and retailers. These capabilities enable the organization to sense marketplace requirements before competitors and to connect its other capabilities to the external environment (Day 1994). Organizations of all strategic types need well-developed market-linking capabilities.For defenders, however, such capabilities are particularly critical because these organizations must correctly and quickly anticipate changes in the market and their customers’ needs if they are to maintain their prominence within their existing product-market domain (Conant, Mokwa, and Varadarajan 1990). Because defenders attempt to locate and maintain a secure niche in a relatively stable product or service area, they tend to offer a more limited range of products or services than their competitors, and they try to protect their domain by offering higher quality, superior service, lower prices, and so forth.To be effective in achieving these objectives, defenders must possess a high lev el of market-linking capabilities. Walker and colleagues (2003) also note that tracking changes in customer needs and competitive behavior is especially important to a differentiated defender strategy. They note that defenders should be strongest in business functions related to their competitive strategy, such as market sensing and linking. Although prospectors should also have good market-linking capabilities, their ability to sustain competitive advantage is more closely tied to the development of new products, markets, and technologies.Therefore, although Market-Linking Capabilities Information Technology Capabilities and Strategic Types 9 market-linking capabilities are important to prospectors and analyzers, defenders will need them most. Our expectations about organizational strategy types and market-linking capabilities (relative to competitors) can be summarized as follows: H1: Along the prospectors–analyzers–defenders continuum, prospectors have the least rel ative marketlinking capabilities, nd defenders have the greatest. Technical capabilities involve the manufacturing processes, technology, new product development, production facilities, and forecasting of technological change in the industry. They are contained within the organization and activated by market, competitor, and external challenges and opportunities. By increasing efficiency in the production process, they can reduce costs and improve consistency in delivery and, therefore, competitiveness (Day 1994).Although technical capabilities are likely to be important for all strategic types, they should be most important to prospectors, which prosper in unstable, changing environments, especially those marked by rapid technological change such as biotechnology, medical care, and aerospace (Walker et al. 2003). Because prospectors use a first-to-market strategy and typically operate within a broad product-market domain that undergoes periodic redefinition (Robinson, Fornell, and Sullivan 1992), they must be able to develop new technologies, products, and markets rapidly (Conant, Mokwa, and Varadarajan 1990; McDaniel and Kolari 1987).Walker and colleagues (2003) note that prospectors require strength in product research and development (R&D) and product engineering, and they perform best when the amount spent on product R&D is high. Because defenders typically locate and maintain a secure niche in a relatively stable product or service area, they tend to be less interested in developing new products and technologies and therefore will depend less on technical capabilities. Formally, H2: Along the prospectors–analyzers–defenders continuum, prospectors have the greatest relative technical capabilities, and defenders have the least.Marketing capabilities include knowledge of the competition and of customers and skill in segmenting and targeting markets, in advertising and pricing, and in integrating marketing activity. Conant, Mokwa, and Varadaraj an (1990) find that prospector firms have distinctive competencies in marketing planning, allocation of marketing resources, revenue forecasting, and control of marketing activities. However, although both prospectors and defenders require skills in Technical Capabilities Marketing Capabilities 10 Michael Song, Robert W. Nason, and C. Anthony Di Benedetto arketing and market research to succeed (Song and Parry 1997a, b), certain marketing capabilities will be of most importance to defender firms because they are most concerned about protecting products and retaining customers (McDaniel and Kolari 1987). Walker and colleagues (2003) note that differentiated defenders must be able to communicate their products’ unique advantages so as to sustain customer satisfaction and loyalty. Low-cost defenders must be able to standardize effective marketing programs across all customer segments so as to reduce overall marketing costs.Thus, because both differentiated and low-cost defenders rely on marketing capabilities, they should develop them to a greater degree than should other strategic types. H3: Along the prospectors–analyzers–defenders continuum, prospectors have the lowest relative marketing capabilities, and defenders have the greatest. A firm active in product development must be able to gather technical and market information effectively and disseminate it throughout the organization (Jaworski and Kohli 1993; Kohli and Jaworski 1990; Narver and Slater 1990).These IT capabilities facilitate internal communication and cross-functional integration (Song et al. 2007). Better IT is associated with greater strategic flexibility and, ultimately, with better performance and greater organizational success (Bharadwaj, Bharadwaj, and Konsynski 1999; Swanson 1994). Day (1994) notes that more creative use of IT should lead to better firm performance, and other researchers have found that better information transmission across functional areas leads to m ore successful new products (Griffin and Hauser 1992, 1993, 1996; Gupta, Raj, and Wilemon 1986; Moenaert and Souder 1996).As we discussed previously, prospectors typically operate within a broad product-market domain that undergoes periodic redefinition. They also rely on the rapid development of new products and new markets (Robinson, Fornell, and Sullivan 1992). Therefore, prospectors need relatively high IT skills to respond rapidly to early signals involving areas of opportunity. Miles and Snow (1978) note that prospectors tend to have the most complex coordination and communication mechanisms.Because of the technologically advanced nature of the products they develop, prospectors are also more likely to encounter conflicts among marketing, R&D, engineering, and possibly other functional areas (Dyer and Song 1997, 1998; Walker et al. 2003). This makes even more critical prospectors’ ability to communicate as effectively as possible and to ensure the free flow of informati on throughout the organization. In addition, prospectors might need greater strategic flexibility than other strategic types because they must constantly monitor and target emerging technology IT CapabilitiesInformation Technology Capabilities and Strategic Types 11 and product opportunities; better IT contributes to greater strategic flexibility (Bharadwaj, Bharadwaj, and Konsynski 1999). Formally, we propose the following: H4: Along the prospectors–analyzers–defenders continuum, prospectors have the greatest relative IT capabilities, and defenders have the lowest. CROSS-NATIONAL HYPOTHESES The cultural differences among Japan, China, and the United States are well documented in the literature (Hofstede 1980; Tse et al. 1988). Japanese and Chinese cultures are collectivistic and long-term oriented, whereas the U.S. culture is individualistic and short-term oriented. Japan and China emphasize group harmony and cohesiveness, whereas the United States values freedom of c hoice and competition (Hofstede 1980). The business environments in both Japan and China reflect these cultural tendencies. In Japan, the Ministry of Economy, Trade, and Industry (METI) encourages investment in key technologies and fierce competition among Japanese firms in selected industries (Kagono et al. 1985). These policies have helped strengthen Japan’s competitiveness in the global marketplace. In addition, METI’s olicies have recently encouraged new initiatives, such as growth in IT and support for environmentally friendly products (Elder 2000). The keiretsu, or interorganizational business groups, also strongly support technology development in Japan (Lai 1999; Lincoln, Gerlach, and Ahmadjian 1996; Miwa and Ramseyer 2002). A major manufacturer might work cooperatively with its suppliers and distributors (vertical keiretsu) or with other manufacturers (horizontal keiretsu) to perfect a new technology; consider, for example, the consortium of Japanese firms tha t worked with Sony in the development of the global positioning system (Campbell 1999).In addition to technology and IT capabilities, Japanese firms in many industries possess formidable marketing and marketlinking capabilities. Their cultural predilection toward group harmony and cohesiveness has led Japanese firms to value long-term relationships with their suppliers, distributors, and customers (Kagono et al. 1985; Kotabe et al. 1991; Smith, Peterson, and Wang 1996; Tse et al. 1988). These relationships enable Japanese manufacturers to link with their customer markets effectively and to develop appropriate marketing strategies and programs.Since the end of World War II, Japanese firms have closed the gap between themselves and their U. S. competitors in terms of marketing capabilities, in some industries surpassing them. As an example, Japanese carmakers are renowned for their excellence in customer research. Use of observational research techniques has enabled Toyota, Nissan, an d Honda to develop cars that are 12 Michael Song, Robert W. Nason, and C. Anthony Di Benedetto ideally suited to the unique demands of the U. S. marketplace (Shirouzu 2001).Japanese carmakers were also among the first to use Quality Function Deployment techniques (e. g. , the House of Quality; see Hauser and Clausing 1988), which ensure that market needs drive all the subsequent steps in product development and manufacturing processes, including product engineering, process planning, and production (Griffin 1992). It was the U. S. carmakers that had to learn these techniques from Japanese carmakers to catch up (Dyer 1996). This literature suggests that Japanese firms are at least equal to their U. S. ompetitors in terms of marketing capabilities and, because of their cultural tendency toward group harmony and cohesiveness, could possess even stronger market-linking capabilities. The Chinese business environment differs from that of Japan, though the two countries share some cultural traits. Despite recent economic reforms, many Chinese firms remain state-owned enterprises, characterized by shared government and firm authority (Schermerhorn and Nyaw 1991). Since the 1970s, investment in technology and innovation has been supported strongly by government policy to stimulate Chinese economic growth and to boost global competitiveness.As decentralization has occurred, stateowned enterprises have increased their decision-making authority on issues such as products and prices (Henley and Nyaw 1986; Laaksonen 1988; Schermerhorn and Nyaw 1991), and smaller collective enterprises with even less government control have become more prevalent (Parry and Song 1994). Nevertheless, Chinese government policy continues to prioritize technology capability investment. However, our review of the literature on Chinese state-owned enterprises reveals little evidence that the Chinese government has prioritized or funded marketing, market-linking, or IT capabilities.In summary, the l iterature suggests that Japanese government and keiretsu policy favor technology and IT capability development, whereas Chinese government policy favors technology development. In addition, the marketing and marketlinking capabilities of Japanese firms are well established, whereas Chinese governmental policy has not supported the development of these capabilities On the basis of this evidence, we propose the following: H5: Japanese firms have greater market-linking capabilities than U. S. and Chinese firms of the same strategic type.H6: Japanese and Chinese firms have greater technology capabilities than U. S. firms of the same strategic type. Information Technology Capabilities and Strategic Types 13 H7: Japanese and U. S. firms have greater marketing capabilities than Chinese firms of the same strategic type. H8: Japanese firms have greater IT capabilities than U. S. firms of the same strategic type. Note that H5–H8 can be tested for each of the four strategic types separa tely—thus the qualifier â€Å"of the same strategic type. † RESEARCH DESIGNInstrument Development and Cross-Cultural Validation Process Our constructs are defined using competitive capability theory (Conant, Mokwa, and Varadarajan 1990; Day 1994) and must be operationalized using valid, reliable measures (Churchill 1979). We used a four-step instrument development procedure to develop new scales for market-linking, technical, marketing, and IT capabilities and to ensure crosscultural validity. (For a fuller discussion of the instrument development procedure, see DeSarbo et al. 2005. ) Step 1: Measurement Items for Each Capability Type.We identified relevant measurement scales from the marketing literature. We grouped the scale items derived from these scales into the four capability types. To this initial pool of items for each capability type, we added new items in instances in which we believed that not all the dimensions of the construct had been sufficiently covere d. To ensure content validity and appropriateness of items, we refined the scales through in-depth focus interviews in two SBUs. Managers at these SBUs were asked their opinions about salient issues in SBU capabilities.They were also asked to evaluate whether the theoretical model described their own experiences adequately. Next, managers commented on their perceptions of the relevance and completeness of the scale items drawn from the literature review and previous case studies. Finally, we tested and validated the Conant, Mokwa, and Varadarajan (1990) strategic typology scale. Step 2: Scale Development. Following Churchill (1979), we assessed construct validity of the scales being developed and corrected any scale items that might still be ambiguous.Seven judges (two professors and five doctoral students with background in measurement development) sorted the items from the first step into the four capability scales, following Davis’s (1986) procedure. Construct convergence and divergence were examined by assessing interrater reliability (for assessment statistics, see DeSarbo et al. 2005). Step 3: Instrument Pretesting. Using the judges’ comments, we reexamined all scale items and eliminated inappropriate or ambiguous items or any that were inconsistently classified.We then combined the four scales into an overall instrument 14 Michael Song, Robert W. Nason, and C. Anthony Di Benedetto for additional pretesting. We distributed the instrument to 32 managers in the two SBUs to further assess scale reliability and validity; two problematic items were deleted. Then, the instrument was distributed to 41 executive MBA students taking a new product development class. We subjected the results to factor analysis and assessment of reliability. (Factor loadings and reliability test results are available on request. We deleted two more items, which resulted in a questionnaire including all items judged to have high consistency and face validity. Step 4: Cr oss-Cultural Validation of the Research Instrument. To ensure that the translation was accurate and that the question meanings were not altered, we used a double-translation method to translate the questionnaire into Japanese and Chinese (Adler 1983; Douglas and Craig 2006; Sekaran 1983). After translation, we conducted field research in six Japanese firms and two Chinese firms in which we examined SBU capabilities and innovation strategies.The purposes of the field research were to establish the content validity of the concepts and the hypothesized relationships among the constructs; to establish equivalence of the constructs, concepts, measures, and samples; and to assess the possibility of cultural bias and response format bias (Douglas and Craig 2006). The field research studies were conducted over a ninemonth period with multiple visits to the companies. The field research studies were important for several reasons. First, they facilitated an assessment of construct (conceptual , functional, and category) equivalence.Second, they indicated that the measurement scales were appropriate for studying capability and strategic types in Japanese and Chinese context. Third, the field research results suggested that it is more appropriate to ask the respondents to rate their SBU on each of the capability scale items relative to their major competitors (for exact wording, see Appendix A). Appendix A provides a list of the final measure measurement items and the response format employed in the questionnaire. The following sections briefly summarize the four scales.Market-Linking Capabilities. We measured market-linking capabilities using several scale items derived from Day (1994). The items measure relative capability in creating and managing durable customer relationships, creating durable relationships with suppliers, retaining customers, and bonding with channel members. Technical Capabilities. We also measured technical capabilities according to a set of scale i tems derived from Day (1994). These items measure relative capabilities in the prediction ofInformation Technology Capabilities and Strategic Types 15 technological change, technology and new product development, manufacturing processes, and production facilities. Marketing Capabilities. We measured marketing capabilities using a set of scale items derived from Conant, Mokwa, and Varadarajan (1990). These items measure knowledge of customers, knowledge of competitors, integration of marketing activities, skills in segmentation and targeting, and effectiveness of pricing and advertising programs. IT Capabilities.We defined IT capabilities as the relative capabilities that help an organization create technical and market knowledge and facilitate intraorganizational communication flow. We developed items to measure the possession of IT systems for new product development, cross-functional integration, technology and market knowledge creation, and internal communication. We subjected th ese items to the measurement development procedure described previously. We obtained the data from a large-scale mail survey of the companies listed in Ward’s Business Directory, the Directory of Corporate Affiliations, and the World Marketing Directory.We drew a proportionate-stratified random sample of 800 firms from each country, using each industry as a stratum. The data collection consisted of three stages: presurvey, data collection on SBU strategies, and data collection on relative capabilities. In the first stage, we sent a one-page survey and an introductory letter requesting participation to all the selected firms and offered a list of available research reports to participating firms. The letter requested each firm to select an SBU/division for participation and provide a contact person in that SBU/division.Of the 2400 firms contacted, 392 in the United States, 429 in Japan, and 414 in China agreed to participate and provided the necessary contacts at the SBU/divis ion level. In the second stage, on strategic types, we contacted the designated SBU managers directly and mailed a questionnaire and personalized letter to each manager. We employed a three-wave mailing on the basis of the recommendations of Dillman (1978). We received data on the multi-item measures of the strategic types from 308 firms in the United States, 354 firms in Japan, and 352 firms in China.Two items at the end of the instrument assessed respondents’ confidence in their ability to answer the questions. Respondents with a low level of confidence (less than 6) were excluded from the final sample. In the third stage, on the four capabilities, we sent another questionnaire to the SBU managers, followed again by a three-wave mailing. This time, we received data on the rela- Data 16 Michael Song, Robert W. Nason, and C. Anthony Di Benedetto tive capabilities from 216 U. S. firms, 248 Japanese firms, and 245 Chinese firms.These sample sizes represent response rates of 27. 0% in the United States, 31. 0% in Japan, and 30. 6% in China. The final sample includes the following industries: computer-related products; electronics; electric equipment and household appliances; pharmaceuticals, drugs, and medicines; machinery; telecommunications equipment; instruments and related products; air conditioning; chemicals and related products; and transportation equipment. The majority of participating SBUs/divisions had annual sales of $11 million–$750 million and 100–12,500 employees.Appendix A presents all of the measures used in this study. We asked respondents to rate their SBU on each of the capability scale items relative to their major competitors. We used an 11-point scale to elicit levels of agreement, with values ranging from 0 (â€Å"much worse than our competitors†) to 10 (â€Å"much better than our competitors†). We used the data collected in the second phase of the collection process to classify the SBU/division into the four strategic types. We adopted the 11-item scale from Conant, Mokwa, and Varadarajan (1990).We classified the SBU’s strategic type (prospector, analyzer, defender, or reactor) using the â€Å"majority-rule decision structure† (for details, see Conant, Mokwa, and Varadarajan 1990) with the following modification: For an SBU to be classified as a prospector or a defender, it must have at least seven â€Å"correct† answers. Before testing our hypotheses, we performed principal factor analyses with Varimax rotation on all the variables measuring the four relative capabilities for all three countries. To assess measurement invariance, we examined factor structure similarity (Mullen 1995).We retained variables using the following criteria: (1) Each factor must contain the same scale items across all three countries, (2) each item’s factor loading must be comparable across all three countries, and (3) for each factor, the factor loading must exceed . 40. This procedure produced four factors and reduced the total number of variables to 21. We made comparisons among the factor structures of the three countries using visual inspection, the salient similarity index, and Pearson correlation of the factor loadings across the three countries. The factor loadings appear in Table 1.As indicated, all factors are distinguishable and well defined for all three countries. The percentage of the variance explained by the four factors is 72% for the United States, 71% for Japan, and 69% for China. The examination of the diagonal of the factor score covariance matrix indicates that all factors for the three Measures ANALYSIS AND RESULTS Factor Analysis of the Capability Scales Information Technology Capabilities and Strategic Types 17 Table 1. Principal Component Factor Analysis: Rotated Factor Patterns United States Market-Linking Capabilities Market-sensing capabilities Customer-linking (i. e. creating and managing durable customer relationships) capab ilities Capabilities of creating durable relationships with our suppliers Ability to retain customers Channel-bonding capabilities (creating durable relationships with channel members such as wholesalers, retailers) Eigenvalue of this factor % variance explained by this factor Technical Capabilities Manufacturing processes Technology development capabilities Ability of predicting technological changes in the industry Production facilities New product development capabilities Eigenvalue of this factor % variance explained by this factor Marketing Capabilities Knowledge of competitors Effectiveness of advertising programs Integration of marketing activities Skill to segment and target markets Effectiveness of pricing programs Knowledge of customers Eigenvalue of this factor % variance explained by this factor IT Capabilities IT systems for facilitating crossfunctional integration IT systems for new product development projects IT systems for internal communication (e. g. , across diff erent departments, levels of the organization) IT systems for facilitating technology knowledge creation IT systems for facilitating market knowledge creation Eigenvalue of this factor % variance explained by this factor . 71 . 80 . 90 . 58 . 86 . 85 . 62 . 89 4. 22 20. 1 . 97 . 93 . 90 . 92 . 91 6. 10 29. 1 . 85 Japan .81 China .88 .80 . 81 . 79 .77 . 71 . 57 .79 . 66 . 70 .65 3. 04 14. 4 .44 1. 68 8. 0 .67 2. 64 12. 6 .79 . 78 . 78 . 77 . 71 2. 51 12. 0 70 . 81 . 69 . 73 . 78 4. 36 20. 7 .95 . 95 . 94 . 95 . 90 . 86 5. 69 27. 1 .95 . 86 . 94 . 93 . 83 . 83 5. 39 25. 7 .90 . 89 .83 . 80 .75 . 66 . 74 1. 66 7. 9 .85 . 65 . 57 5. 08 24. 2 .46 . 67 . 63 1. 75 8. 3 18 Michael Song, Robert W. Nason, and C. Anthony Di Benedetto countries are internally consistent and well defined by the measurement items. We provide the final set of included measurement items in Appendix A and the construct reliabilities (as measured by Cronbach’s ? ) and item-to-total correlations in Appendix B. All 12 construct reliabilities (three countries ? four constructs) exceeded the . 70 level that Peter (1979) recommends.To test H1–H4 in each of the three country settings, we performed multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVAs) to compare the scores on each of the four multi-item relative capability scales across all four strategic types using SAS general linear model procedure. For each capability scale, we obtained a multiple-item scale by a simple average of the items. As Table 2 shows, the MANOVA F-statistic was significant for all four relative capabilities and in all three countries, so we computed pairwise comparisons to examine the nature of the differences in relative capabilities among the four strategic types. We also include the t-test results of the pairwise comparisons in Table 2.The results in Table 2 provide support for H1–H4 in all three countries. (A hypothesis is supported if at least one pairwise comparison is significant and the direction is in t he hypothesized direction. ) As H1 hypothesized, the relative marketlinking capabilities of defenders and analyzers are significantly greater than those of prospectors in all three countries, though the difference between defenders and analyzers is not significant. For example, in the United States, mean scores on market-linking capabilities are 2. 69, 2. 35, and 1. 67 for defenders, analyzers, and prospectors, respectively. The F-statistic from the analysis of variance is 3. 52, which is significant at p < . 05.T-tests of the paired comparisons showed that both the defender mean and the analyzer mean were significantly larger than the prospector mean (D > P; A > P) at the p < . 05 level. We obtained similar results for the Japanese and Chinese samples. These findings are consistent with H1. Prospectors have lower market-linking capabilities than defenders and analyzers because the latter two strategic types rely primarily on their market-sensing and -linking abilities to serve thei r current markets with their current products and technologies. The results also support H2 (prospectors have greater technical capabilities than defenders) in all three countries.For the United States, the prospector and defender means were 3. 42 and 2. 25, respectively, significantly different at p < . 05. Both prospectors’ and analyzers’ technical capabilities are greater than those of defenders in Japan. The means for prospector, analyzer, and defender were 8. 75, 8. 47, and 7. 84, respectively; both prospector and analyzer means were significantly Tests of H1–H4: Possession of Capabilities by Different Strategic Types Information Technology Capabilities and Strategic Types 19 20 Table 2. Analysis of Variance Results: Relative Capabilities and Strategic Types Strategic Type Prospector 1. 67 (1. 67) 3. 42 (2. 70) 1. 75 (1. 50) 7. 5 (1. 49) 6. 72 (1. 79) 5. 48 (1. 09) 5. 05 (1. 72) 2. 37 (1. 75) 3. 26 (1. 99) 1. 98 (2. 38) 2. 78 (2. 46) 2. 25 (2. 59) 2. 46 (2. 90) 2. 16* 7. 47** 31. 96** 2. 35 (1. 82) 2. 69 (1. 79) 2. 46 (2. 01) 3. 52** Univariate Defender Reactor F-Value Paired Comparisons Hypothesis (t-Tests)a D > P; A > P P>D D > A; D > P; D > R; A > P P > A; P > D; P > R; A > D; A > R Countries/Relative Capabilities Analyzer Supportedb Yes Yes Yes Yes United States Market-linking capabilities Technical capabilities Marketing capabilities IT capabilities Japan 1. 03 (. 91) 8. 75 (1. 23) 3. 58 (2. 36) 9. 48 (. 87) 9. 00 (1. 01) 3. 9 (2. 88) 8. 47 (1. 20) 7. 84 (1. 35) 3. 68 (2. 73) 8. 72 (1. 09) 1. 96 (1. 12) 2. 07 (1. 19) 2. 51 (1. 56) 7. 42 (1. 42) 4. 82 (2. 29) 8. 46 (1. 28) 19. 17** 12. 02** 2. 24* 11. 28** D > P; A > P; R > D; R > A; R > P P > D; P > R; A > D; A > R R > D; R > A; R > P P > A; P > D; P > R; A > R Yes Yes No Yes Market-linking capabilities Technical capabilities Marketing capabilities Michael Song, Robert W. Nason, and C. Anthony Di Benedetto IT capabilities Strategic Type Prospector 1. 21 (1. 28) 8. 53 (1. 27) 2. 9 2 (2. 20) 8. 96 (1. 10) 8. 58 (1. 13) 7. 94 (1. 33) 7. 59 (1. 60) 13. 38** 3. 37 (2. 52) 3. 9 (2. 82) 4. 13 (2. 45) 2. 30* 7. 81 (1. 28) 7. 43 (1. 19) 6. 79 (1. 85) 15. 69** 2. 17 (1. 52) 2. 22 (1. 49) 2. 71 (1. 74) 11. 21** Univariate Defender Reactor F-Value Paired Comparisons Hypothesis (t-Tests)a D > P; A > P; R > A; R > P P > A; P > D; P > R; A > R; D > R D > P; R > P P > A; P > D; P > R; A > D; A > R Countries/Relative Capabilities Analyzer Supportedb Yes Yes Yes Yes China Market-linking capabilities Technical capabilities Marketing capabilities IT capabilities Information Technology Capabilities and Strategic Types *p < . 10. **p < . 05. aSignificant differences at p < . 0 are reported. bA hypothesis is supported if at least one pair is significantly different in the hypothesized direction. Notes: Each cell shows the mean; standard deviations are in parentheses. P = prospector, A = analyzer, D = defender, and R = reactor. Table 2. Continued 21 higher than the defender mean at p < . 05. In China, prospectors scored higher than analyzers and defenders on this capability (prospector, analyzer, and defender means were 8. 53, 7. 81, and 7. 43, respectively; the prospector mean was significantly higher than the other two means at p < . 05). H3 was supported in the United States and China samples. For the U. S. ample, defenders had significantly greater marketing capabilities than analyzers, and analyzers had significantly greater marketing capabilities than prospectors. The defender, analyzer, and prospector means on relative marketing capabilities in the United States were 3. 26, 2. 37, and 1. 75, respectively, all significantly different from one another at p < . 05 according to the pairwise t-tests. For the Chinese sample, the only differences are the pair between defenders and prospectors and the pair between reactors and prospectors. However, for the Japanese samples, the hypothesis was not supported. The three â€Å"archetypal† strategic types we re insignificantly different and, notably, rather low.The reactors had significantly greater marketing capabilities than all other three strategic types. Finally, H4 was also supported in all three countries. Almost without exception, prospectors had greater IT capabilities than analyzers, which in turn had greater IT capabilities than defenders. For example, in the U. S. sample, the relative IT capabilities for prospectors, analyzers, and defenders were 7. 95, 6. 72, and 5. 48, respectively, all significantly different from one another at p < . 05. Similar results were found in Japan and China. In summary, our expectations, expressed in our hypotheses, were that prospectors would be strongest in technical and IT capabilities and defenders in market-linking and marketing capabilities.We find support for all these hypotheses in all three countries, and all significant findings were in the hypothesized directions. The next set of hypotheses involves expected cross-national differences in terms of the relationship between capabilities and strategic types due to cultural or business environment differences. Before discussing the direct empirical testing of these hypotheses, however, we explain some preliminary findings regarding cross-national differences using data from Table 2. Market-Linking Capabilities. Reactors had significantly greater relative market-linking capabilities than did other strategic types in both Japan and China, but not in the United States. Market-linking capability = 2. 51 and 2. 71 in Japan and China, respectively; in each case, this is the highest capability mean. ) Miles and Snow (1978) find that reactors Tests of H5–H8: Cross-National Similarities and Differences 22 Michael Song, Robert W. Nason, and C. Anthony Di Benedetto did not implement strategies consistently and therefore did not fully develop internal capabilities that would enable them to compete successfully. Our results suggest that this expectation is not borne out in Japan or China, possibly because some firms in these countries have well-developed market-linking capabilities but choose to compete as reactors rather than defenders.That is, superior market-sensing skills enable these firms to act successfully as prospectors in certain markets and as adapters or defenders in others. This finding appears to be supported by the H3 results, at least for Japanese firms. Reactors in Japan have significantly greater relative marketing capabilities than all other strategic types. Leaders of a multinational organization doing business against a Japanese competitor should keep in mind that a firm apparently lacking a consistent strategy (i. e. , displaying reactive behavior) may be nonetheless highly skilled in marketing and market linking and, therefore, a surprisingly formidable opponent. Technical Capabilities.Although H2 was largely supported, it is worthwhile to note that across all four strategic types, managers from U. S. firms rated their technica l capabilities (relative to competitors) substantially lower than did their Japanese or Chinese counterparts. The means for the United States were 2. 2–3. 4 on a ten-point scale, and comparable means in Japan and China were 7–9. This finding suggests that in Japan and China, all strategic types (including defenders and reactors) have well-developed relative technical capabilities. Again, a U. S. firm in competition against, for example, a Japanese defender should not infer low technical capabilities from its competitor’s defensive posture. Marketing Capabilities.Finally, it was surprising to note that H3, which involves relative marketing capabilities, was not supported in Japan and only partially supported in China. As we noted previously, Japanese reactor firms have the greatest relative marketing capabilities; all other firms are insignificantly different on this capability. In China, defenders rate significantly higher than prospectors in this (as hypothesiz ed), but we found no other significant differences among the archetypal strategic types. Cross-National Differences. To test the cross-national hypotheses (H5–H8), we performed additional analyses to compare the means on each relative capability construct across countries for each of the four strategic types using SAS general linear model procedure.We used the same procedure described previously: a MANOVA followed by a series of pairwise t-tests to identify significant differences. As Table 3 shows, the F-statistic was significant for 13 of the 16 possible comparisons. Information Technology Capabilities and Strategic Types 23 Consider first the technology and IT capability hypotheses (H6 and H8). Table 3 shows that across all four strategic types, Japanese and Chinese SBUs rate significantly higher than U. S. SBUs in relative technical capabilities. As an example, technical capabilities for prospectors were rated as 8. 75, 8. 53, and 3. 42 for Japan, China, and the United St ates, respectively (significant at p < . 05).This is directly supportive of H6. Japanese and Chinese SBUs also rated significantly higher than their U. S. counterparts in relative IT capabilities across all four strategic types; therefore, we find only partial support for H8. For prospectors, IT capabilities were 9. 48, 8. 96, and 7. 95 for Japan, China, and the United States, respectively (significant at p < . 05). High relative IT capability among Japanese SBUs was expected according to H8, but the high relative IT capability among Chinese SBUs was unanticipated and is worthy of further research. We found less support for the market-linking and marketing capability hypotheses (H5 and H7).Cross-national differences are not very pronounced in the case of relative marketlinking capabilities. As Table 3 shows, U. S. prospector SBUs rate significantly higher than their Japanese and Chinese counterparts, and U. S. defenders rate significantly higher than their Japanese counterparts. The se findings are contradictory to the expectations of H5. Given the evidence of Japanese market-linking expertise, it is surprising that Japanese SBUs rate significantly higher than U. S. or Chinese competitors in market linking only in the case of reactors. In addition, H7 is only partially supported. Japanese and Chinese prospectors and analyzers rate significantly higher than their U. S. ounterparts on relative marketing capabilities. For example, in the case of prospectors, marketing capabilities are rated as 4. 58, 2. 92, and 1. 75 for Japan, China, and the United States, respectively (significant at p < . 05). Although we expected high relative marketing capability for Japan, we did not expect the significantly lower marketing capabilities among U. S. SBUs. Nevertheless, consistent patterns appear with respect to the cross-national hypotheses and suggest directions for further research. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION According to the Miles and Snow (1978) typology, organizations ado pt certain mechanisms to respond to environmental changes.That is, they choose to be pioneers in product or market development or to protect existing positions within their niches, or they seek some kind of intermediate position between these two extremes. As a result, firms exhibit relatively consistent strategies, or patterns of product-market innovation decisions, in response to environmental shifts. Furthermore, a firm that pursues a given strategy develops certain capabilities that help it implement that strategy, thus increasing the likelihood that it will continue to use the same strategy in response to future environmental shifts. As Ham- 24 Michael Song, Robert W. Nason, and C. Anthony Di BenedettoStrategic Types/ Relative Capabilities United States 1. 67 3. 42 1. 75 7. 95 9. 48 8. 96 33. 14** 3. 58 2. 92 13. 91** 8. 75 8. 53 202. 00** 1. 03 1. 21 4. 74** Country Japan China Univariate F-Value Cross-Country Comparisonsa U. S. > China; U. S. > Japan Japan > U. S. ; China > U . S. Japan > China; Japan > U. S. ; China > U. S. Japan > China; Japan > U. S. ; China > U. S. Prospectors Market-linking capabilities Technical capabilities Marketing capabilities IT capabilities Analyzers 2. 35 2. 78 2. 37 6. 72 9. 00 8. 58 3. 59 3. 37 8. 47 7. 81 230. 38** 5. 46** 58. 07** 1. 96 2. 17 1. 16n. s. — Japan > China; Japan > U. S. China > U. S. Japan > U. S. ; China > U. S. Japan > China; Japan > U. S. ; China > U. S. Market-linking capabilities Technical capabilities Marketing capabilities IT capabilities Defenders 2. 69 2. 25 3. 26 5. 48 8. 72 3. 68 3. 69 7. 94 7. 84 7. 43 2. 07 2. 22 2. 70* 163. 99** . 54n. s. 121. 94** U. S. > Japan Japan > U. S. ; China > U. S. — Japan > China; Japan > U. S. ; China > U. S. Market-linking capabilities Technical capabilities Marketing capabilities Information Technology Capabilities and Strategic Types IT capabilities Table 3. Analysis of Variance Results: Cross-National Comparisons 25 26 Table 3.Continued Country Un ited States 2. 46 2. 46 1. 98 5. 05 8. 46 7. 59 4. 81 4. 13 7. 42 6. 79 2. 51 2. 71 . 17n. s. 38. 68** 7. 99** 28. 82** Strategic Types/ Relative Capabilities Japan China Univariate F-Value Cross-Country Comparisonsa Japan > U. S. ; China > U. S. Japan > U. S. ; China > U. S. — Japan > China; Japan > U. S. ; China > U. S. Reactors Market-linking capabilities Technical capabilities Marketing capabilities IT capabilities Michael Song, Robert W. Nason, and C. Anthony Di Benedetto *p < . 10. **p < . 05. aSignificant differences at p < . 10 are reported. Notes: n. s. = not significant. brick (1983, p. ) notes, â€Å"prospectors tend to want to continue prospecting; defenders tend to want to continue defending. † Among the capabilities Miles and Snow investigate are technology, structure, management processes, and power distribution. As we noted previously, the Miles and Snow (1978) typology is, above all, a typology of innovation strategies. In this study, we mapped four ca pabilities of interest to innovating firms (market-linking, technical, marketing, and IT capabilities) onto the Miles and Snow strategic typologies. We hypothesized (in H1–H4) that prospectors, which typically pursue a first-mover strategy through product-market innovation, would need to build up technical and IT capabilities.Similarly, defenders, which are most concerned with preserving protected market segments with existing technology, must develop market-linking and marketing capabilities. We found supporting evidence for all these hypotheses in firms from all three countries. We then developed and tested a set of cross-national hypotheses (H5–H8), based on cultural and business environment differences existing among the United States, Japan, and China. Our development and empirical testing of these hypotheses represent a significant advance of the literature beyond the contributions of DeSarbo and colleagues (2005, 2006). We found clear support for one of the four hypotheses (H6), partial support for two others (H7 and H8), and no support for the last (H5).In general, the cultural and business environment prevalent in Japan and China has given SBUs in those countries relative advantages in technology and IT capabilities (H6 and H8), yet we did not observe anticipated advantages in market-linking and marketing capabilities (H5 and H7). This study has some implications for theory development and further research. In general, the results support the hypotheses that relative to other organizations, prospectors develop greater technical and IT capabilities so that they can pursue first-to-market initiatives and that defenders develop greater market-linking and marketing capabilities so that they can respond effectively to marketplace changes.These findings lend support to the Miles and Snow (1978) typology and to the contention that organizations tend to respond in certain, consistent ways to environmental change. Therefore, our findings can be i nterpreted as further empirical support of the Miles and Snow typology, originally conceived after an exploratory study of a limited number of industries but empirically supported in other settings (Hambrick 2003). Our findings are also consistent with Hambrick’s (1983) contention that prospectors want to keep prospecting and consequently develop the capabilities most closely related to Information Technology Capabilities and Strategic Types 27 prospecting more than do other firms. Because IT has evolved only in the past few years, further research should explore the impact of IT on strategic choices.Because no existing theories are sufficient to enable us to predict a priori the nature of cross-national differences in the relationship between the four capabilities and strategic types, further research also should examine further our preliminary results regarding cross-national differences in relative capabilities. In addition, note that our model provides evidence of the val idity of Conant, Mokwa, and Varadarajan’s (1990) 11-item scale for assessing strategic type in both Japan and China. We believe that this is the first application of this scale in China and one of the first in Japan (for an earlier Japanese application, see Dyer and Song 1997). There are several notable managerial implications. The Miles and Snow (1978) typology suggests that organizations must do a sincere internal and external assessment when planning strategic moves for future competition.The external assessment should include analysis not only of likely opportunities or developments in product, market, and technology but also of past moves by primary competitors classified by strategic type. In the internal assessment, the organization’s leaders must identify honestly the firm’s strengths and recognize its weaknesses in light of external challenges. They must then choose a strategic stance, deciding how it can best capitalize on the strengths and overcome th e weaknesses. Although this recommendation is hardly new, it is important in this context to recognize that there is a mutually complementary relationship between capabilities and strategies.Relative strengths in technology and IT capabilities might suggest that a prospector (or even an analyzer) strategy could be a more appropriate choice than a defender strategy. Consistent, successful pursuit of a prospector strategy over time should help a firm develop these relative strengths and enable it to retain its competitive advantage. This implicitly suggests also that a firm that recognizes itself as a reactor type should use its internal assessment to decide which â€Å"archetypal† strategic type it should strive to become. Cross-national differences in strategic type also carry managerial implications. Previously, we noted several

The Canon

4. Define the â€Å"canon† and describe the basic criteria and chronology behind the formation of the New Testament canon. What evidence exists in this area? Why did early Christians feel a need to establish an authoritative list? Which elements in the criteria are the most and least important? State your reasons for choosing these elements. How would you respond if someone claimed that the canon of the Bible should still be open? a. Define the â€Å"canon† and describe the basic criteria and chronology behind the formation of the New Testament canon.What evidence exists in this area? The word â€Å"canon† is a Semitic loanword that initially meant â€Å"reed† but came to mean â€Å"measuring reed and hence rule or standard or norm† (Carson, 726). In the history of Christianity the word canon was first used to designate doctrines which established the basic beliefs and practices of the church (Lea, 70). In our reading in Carson/Moo and Lea/Black, th ree elements of criteria’s are used to show that certain books belonged in the canon known as â€Å"orthodoxy, apostolicity, and universality† (Lea, 72).Lea/Black states, that the gages for defining canonicity are difficult to determine, but the most vital criterion for determining canonicity is inspiration (Lea, 71). The first basic criteria involved â€Å"the rule of faith† (Carson, 736, Lea 71), which meant that the teaching of the book followed the beliefs the church honors as acceptable and correct, (Lea 71). The second basic criteria entail of the demonstration of apostolicity, which â€Å"required authorship by an apostle or by the companion of an apostle† ( Lea, 71), the final basic criteria is universal acceptance meaning used and accepted by churches everywhere (Carson, 737). . What evidence exists in this area? The foundations that the Church uses to base canonicity upon are the use of the works by early Christian writers (Lea and Black, 73). T he regularity of references from various books informs modern students of how the books were viewed in ancient times (Carson and Moo, 733). Another basis affecting the results of the canonical question are the early lists put forth of books deemed inspired (Lea and Black, 73).Lastly, the addition of manuscripts in early codices indicates the opinion of the book by the binder (Lea and Black, 73). c. Why did early Christians feel a need to establish an authoritative list? There is not a definite cause why early Christians felt a need to institute an authoritative list, some of the reasons for the list could have included persecution, distance from the historical Jesus, the pressure of Montanism, the rise of Gnosticism and other movements with scriptures to be rejected (Carson, 736).With this being the case I feel that the formation of an authoritative list by early Christians was deemed necessary to contest the teachings of heretics that were appearing in the Church. Through the inser tion of books that possessed non-Christian ideals or the rejection of books accepted as inspired, false and incomplete teaching ran the risk of corrupting orthodox doctrine d. Which elements in the criteria are the most and least important? I believe the most important element of canonicity is inspiration and that God chooses to work in a person’s lives in other ways.Someone may say inspiration, I cannot see why man would try to limit God’s ability to move and I believe that our minds cannot even begin to grasp the depth, width or even an ounce of God’s wisdom or knowledge or even half of what he is able to do, when looking at creation and the vastness of the universe it is mind blowing to me. I also believe that â€Å"Apostolicity† is also an important criterion, being that Matthew, John and Peter, were members of the twelve along with Paul, commissioned by Christ, along with their associates such as Mark who with Paul .The least important criteria to me is universality based on Carson’s assessment of it being â€Å"scarcely less important† (Carson, 737). e. How would you respond if someone claimed that the canon of the Bible should still be open? In most modern churches today, the Canons are considered to be â€Å"closed†, meaning that God does not add to or take away from the writings of the bible, and instead chooses to work in a person’s lives in other ways. We all recognize that the New Testament canon contains the authorative record of Jesus life and the interpretation of its significance (Lea, 74-75), with that reason the canon should not still be open.But we also must keep in mind that God who is sovereign and can choose to move however he desires and many times I feel that we try to put human reasoning in areas that our mind cannot even perceive, for as stated in Isaiah 55:8 God says: â€Å"For my thoughts are not your thoughts, neither are your ways my ways, saith the LORD. † 4. Explain how we have approximated the dates of Jesus' birth and death as well as the length of his ministry. List primary and secondary sources describing his life. Which of these sources is the most important?How important is accurate historical information in providing a foundation for accepting and believing the gospel message? a. Explain how we have approximated the dates of Jesus' birth and death as well as the length of his ministry. We have an awareness of the date of Jesus birth because of three main events. A period before the death of Herod the Great, during the time of a census ordered by Augusts, and when there was a bright start in the sky leading men from the east (Lea, 95). Ancient records designate that Herod possibly died around March 4B.C. this means that Christ was born before that (Lea, 95). Quirinius was governor of Syria during the officiating of the census under Augustus. (Lea, 95). The registration for the census could have happened possibly in 8 B. B. and could have taken years to execute. This places the birth of Jesus anywhere from 6 to 5 B. C. (Lea, 96) Jesus’ death is very reliant on the Gospel of John. John associates Jesus’ death to a system of time based on the ministry of John the Baptist, who preceded Christ, which took place on the 15th year of Tiberius reign. Lea, 96) John mentions that the construction of the temple had taken 46 years in the beginning of Jesus’ ministry. (Lea, 97). If you evaluate both of these statements and add the approximate three years of Jesus’ ministry they both arrive at a death for Jesus in A. D. 29 or 30 (Lea, 97). The approximate length for the ministry of Jesus is arrived at using the number of Passovers that Jesus attended. (Lea, 96) b. List primary and secondary sources describing his life. Which of these sources is the most important? The gospel of Matthew and Luke are the prime sources of the life of Jesus.The birth of Christ is most fully covered by Matthew and Luke, (Lea , 97). Matthew and Luke also present the most information about the life of Jesus before his ministry, or the â€Å"Period of â€Å"Preparation. † (Lea, 98) John is the only Gospel that relates Jesus Judean ministry. The rest of Jesus ministry is recorded in the entire Gospel, which makes Mark and John the secondary complete record of the life of Jesus. c. How important is accurate historical information in providing a foundation for accepting and believing the gospel message? The Gospel message comprises substantial facts about the life of Jesus.Important academic attention has been devoted to the historical examination of the New Testament, explicitly with respect to establishing it as a reliable historical document. The vast amount of material, in the form of manuscripts, archaeology, and authorial phenomenon delivers an priceless glance into the depths of events surrounding the historicity as well as the development of the New Testament. For many people without establish ing historical believability for the New Testament, there would be no grounds to suggest any sort of belief in it as a reliable source.But for me even if the dates cannot be exactly known for the Christian, it should not affect the belief in the life of Christ. The great men of the Bible prophesied accurately that highly educated men and women who scoff at God and His revealed Word would dominate our world. Although men have sneered at God in every generation beginning with Adam, ours was to be the worst. The Apostle Paul wrote: Because that, when they knew God, they glorified him not as God, neither were thankful; but became vain in their imaginations, and their foolish heart was darkened.Professing themselves to be wise, they became fools. And even as they did not like to retain God in their knowledge, God gave them over to a reprobate mind, to do those things which are not convenient (Romans 1:21-22, 28). Although Paul is speaking specifically about the earliest men, we have not changed for the better; we have grown worse. Since the 17th and 18th centuries, men have produced an amazing fund of knowledge in the industrial and scientific areas. Yet pursuing knowledge about God has been left out. We have several sources that provides foundations for accepting and believing the gospel message.Carson, D. A. and Douglas J. Moo. An Introduction to the New Testament. 2ded. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2005. Lea, Thomas D. and David Alan Black. The New Testament: Its Background and Message. 2ded. Nashville, Tennessee: Broadman and Holman Publishers, 2003 Carson, D. A. and Douglas J. Moo. An Introduction to the New Testament. 2ded. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2005. Lea, Thomas D. and David Alan Black. The New Testament: Its Background and Message. 2ded. Nashville, Tennessee: Broadman and Holman Publishers, 2003

End of Course Assignment. Financial Markets and Risk Assignment

End of Course . Financial Markets and Risk - Assignment Example A number of recessions or financial crisis that has been witnessed across the globe is as a result of the Systematically Important Financial Institutions. It is axiomatic to argue that the financial crises of 2007/2008 just like the financial crisis of the 1930’s post a great dilemma for many observers and the world at large. Whether unprecedented or otherwise, the truth is that it brought with it great damage to the society. (Taylor, 2011) Adopting some of the best priorities to deal with the issues and avoid a repeat of the same is the main focus of different policy makers globally. The first section of the paper discusses the Systematically Important Financial Institution and threat they pose to the economy. The second phase looks at the 2007/2008 economic crisis and how the Systematically Important Financial Institution was responsible for it. It goes further to recommend some of the best ways to deal with the problem in the future. The definition and structure of the Systematically Important Financial Institution is dependent on the potential of the institution to cause financial destruction. An institution becomes more relevant when it has a high level or probability to cause serious destruction to the economy. On the positive side, Systematically Important Financial Institution is defined going by their relevant viability in leading to a smooth growth and functioning of an economy. Therefore the positive looks at the good part with regards to positive effects to the entire population. Both negative and positive sides reflect the question on whether the Systematically Important Financial Institution are necessary and are indispensable to any financial system or whether they are dangerous and should be done away with. In other words, Systematically Important Financial Institution can create some of the best sides of the

Compare and contrast aspects of Arab identity as manifested in Essay

Compare and contrast aspects of Arab identity as manifested in Palestinian and Druze communities - Essay Example do not have their own country, similar to the Kurdish people of Turkey today who are fighting for their own homeland through an armed secessionist movement in northern Turkey. The Druze never had a single country to call as their own due to being scattered in many places a long time ago and did not seek any piece of land they can call as their own homeland. This makes the Druze unique in history. They were left out when the British partitioned and left Palestine but had steadfastly retained their identity. Palestinians live within the original geographic borders of Palestine situated in the regions encompassing Israel, the Gaza Strip, and the West Bank. Except for those who took up Israeli or Jordanian citizenship or of some other country, Palestinians are stateless because they have no officially-recognized country. Palestinians and Druze think of themselves as Arabs but with sub-identities such as an Arab (national), civic (Israeli or Syrian), and religious as Druze, Christian or Muslim (Hofman & Rouhana 76). This paper discusses two films that portray how these Arab identities are expressed in art such as films which mirror a collective consciousness that is manifested by people who are trying to define themselves. The Druze community is very small when considered as an ethnic group and this very smallness makes the Druze persevere in their customs and practices. They are very decided to remain identified as a Druze although in some quarters, the word Druze is often derogatory. In their communities, the person considers himself or herself as Druze first and second as Syrian. Druze people in the Golan Heights consider themselves as Syrian citizens. The Druze already have a well-defined or clear social identity unlike the Palestinians who are still struggling to establish an identity. This difference is well contrasted in the two films being discussed. In the film â€Å"The Syrian Bride† it was shown how ephemeral this idea of citizenship is because the bride

The artistic value of Red Harvest Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The artistic value of Red Harvest - Essay Example This paper aims to evaluate the artistic value attached to the novel â€Å"Red Harvest†. In literature, the artistic value lies in the language used to express the story in the form of diction and syntax, and in the form of the setting or the mood that is created by the writer through the setting and the characters. It is necessary, however, that the language and the mood are in accordance with the genre and the story or message of the novel or other such work of literature, otherwise the aesthetic value might seem misplaced or even absent. This realization is important when considering a novel like the â€Å"Red Harvest† by Dashiell Hammett. The pertinent novel is of the detective genre, written at a time when the critics had begun to despair over the prevalent techniques used to write such novels (Malmgren). They had established that the novels written then were not doing justice to the detective genre as they were not set in a realistic world with a realistic plot (M almgren). Red Harvest, however, changed the minds of the critics, and is termed as one of the best novels written in the English language (Malmgren). Indeed, it laid the foundations for the stereotypical characters, plot, and setting that one encounters in the novels of this genre today (Marling). The highly professional, emotionally detached, self-righteous detective (Malmgren) stems from the character of the Continental Operative in Red Harvest; a world ruled by thugs and gangsters and infected with vice is reminiscent of the world created by Hammett in this novel (Marling). To do justice to such a story, it is imperative that the treatment of the novel should be bare, minimalist, cold, and crude; otherwise, the writer would fail to hit the point across to the readers, and the treatment and story would not be in synch. It has already been established in this paper that the aesthetic sense or the artistic value of a work of literature should be viewed in the context of the story, a nd not separately and removed from the context. To this end, it can be determined that Red Harvest is highly artistic in its treatment to the subject matter, as it does complete justice to the setting and the mood of the novel, and creates an atmosphere that is at once awe-inspiring and abhorrent in its nature. It is easy to comprehend why the treatment could be abhorrent; it lacks all forms of humanity, morals, and ethics, and is utterly hopeless and despairing (Malmgren). The characters are vile and treacherous, and the plot is highly gruesome and brutal. There is rampant and mad bloodletting (Malmgren), reaching absurdity, and at times it becomes difficult to see how such an environment could be linked to the real world. However, this same trait of the novel is awe-inspiring. The writer has successfully managed to use his language skills to create such an ambience, and to evoke feelings of morbidity, alarm, and suspense in the readers. Without such a treatment, the novel would ha ve seemed ridiculous. And this precisely, is the artistic value of the novel. Artistic value is not necessarily always appealing, sweet, and homey, as is art. And it is not imperative for it to be so, either. However, what is imperative is that it should be in accordance with the nature and the meaning of the piece of art, otherwise, it would counter the intended perception. At times, this synchronization between the work of art and the aesthetic sen

Patient Workplace Nursing Human Resource Issue Essay

Patient Workplace Nursing Human Resource Issue - Essay Example All these issues impact one another and make up a rich dynamic that affects the way nursing care is given at present. They also impact the way planning for future care is done in hospitals and other institutions of care. There is a need to explore the literature to find answers, sort out the issues, and get to a more nuanced and deeper perspective of how such issues affect and feed off one another. Hopefully at the end of the exercise the literature will point the way towards possible solutions, or at least towards new and rich insights that can guide planning on the part of hospitals and other institutions, and the way nurses pursue career tracks in the different related disciplines. At the very least, the review of the literature hopefully brings us up to date with regard to what the state of those issues are, what the terrain looks like so to speak, and what major milestones and watermarks are present that nursing practitioners, health care managers, and all the other stakeholders in the process should be on the watch for, with regard to nursing staffing, turnover, career development, and related issues of vital interest. Moreover, the review of the literature ought to guide creative endeavors aimed at resolving key bottlenecks and main points of dispute and concern. The thinking is that an intelligent look at the literature ought to give practitioners and involved parties the right kinds of perspectives and tools without which creativity in the crafting of solutions to pressing human resource issues cannot be undertaken successfully (Ritchie et al., 2003; Vincent and Beduz, 2010; Doherty et al., n.d.; Sanford, 2010; Jones, 2008; Hunt, 2009). II. Review of the Literature There has been two sides to a debate that constitute the push and pull forces as far as nurse staffing and human resources management is concerned. On the one side are arguments that point to quality of care levels being correlated with the quality and number of nurses allocated for every pa tient in a health care setting. The greater the quality and the greater the number of nurses allocated on a per patient basis. On the other side are arguments that treat the issue of health care provision as a numbers/financials game. To be financially viable, nursing human resources must be treated as a financial variable, as a cost that must be managed. Of course as a cost, hospitals and other health care institutions being for the most part for profit operations, nursing staffing must be managed to optimal levels, rather than to the maximum, because the latter means suboptimal profits. The balancing act is with regard to providing optimum care via staffing of nurses that is also financially viable for the institution concerned (Ritchie et al., 2003; Vincent and Beduz, 2010; Doherty et al., n.d.; Sanford, 2010; Jones, 2008; Hunt, 2009). Yet the literature also states that the problem of staffing is not an easy one to tackle and solve, owing to the fact that there are a host of fac tors that impact hiring and staffing decisions. While it is known that staffing levels correlate positively with quality of care, aside from the financials there is the matter of the lack of qualified nurses to provide quality care. This is a problem of qualification. At any given time, though there are vacancies, not enough qualified nurses are available to man and fill up those vacant nurses' positions. This means that if a hospital, for instance, goes

What is meant by 'money' in a modern economy Essay

What is meant by 'money' in a modern economy - Essay Example Alla Stephun, while writing on the philosophy of money says "Money is a reality, a permanent feature of our everyday lives. It gives our lives a particular rhythm, a particular charm, a particular perception of the world and our place in it." This buttresses the point that money has really affected and effected humanity. There are situations where we think of what money is in modern society. In attempt to answer some of these pertinent questions, a number of topics will have to be discussed. These essay therefore examines the issue that has to do with money in the modern economy, explaining what credit creation is. Particular attention will be devoted to the role of the Bank of England as a full controller of the quantity of money in circulation in the UK economy. Money can be defined in a number of different ways - from the simple manner to the complex .The way it is defined ,depends to an extent on the situation and circumstances surrounding the situation. But whatever way money is to be defined, it all points to one direction - it is a medium of exchange. Money does not necessary need to be in cash - which is money is form of bills(notes) or coins, it can also be form of assets - items that have economic value. So to this effect, we can also refer to money as being any items that carries out the function of money. CHARATERISTICS OF MONEY: Money, just as any other entity has certain characteristics that are associated with it. Some of the very obvious characteristics of money will be briefly talked about here. These are: 1. Durability: This refers to money being able to maintain its shape or form over a period of time. For money to be able to perform certain of its functions- like being a medium of exchange or a store of value, it has to posses the characteristics of durability. 2. Portability: This has to do with the easy movement between different locations that money has to undergo when there is the need, particular for exchange purposes. 3. Divisibility: Money has to be capable of being easily divided into smaller fractions, when exchange for good s or services of varying values are to be made. For any medium of exchange to be efficient, it has to have that capacity of serving in that capacity at varying values. FUNCTION OF MONEY: The single reason that money serves as a medium of exchange, makes us all to know that it has some usefulness. Money is desirable, though there are some individuals that are of the view that the possession of too much of money by a single entity is bad. Some of the characteristics of money are: 1. Medium of Exchange: Money serves as a medium of exchange, good and services are exchanged for money. An older manner where trading was done was by barter. Money has made transactions in modern times to be easier. 2. Unit of Account: This means that money serves as the benchmark for determining the worth of good s and services in a modern economy. It functions as the measuring unit of value or prices. 3. Store of Value:

Innovative Organisations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Innovative Organisations - Essay Example Even for maintaining a healthy growth, the deliverables must be much above the expectations of the client keeping the operational costs down and within the specified time frame. If the increasing demand for the product thus created have to met, then innovation becomes the need of the hour and an essence for any successful business to survive. I have taken Microsoft as the organization for analysis of business environment and have performed SWOT and PESTEL evaluation of its business. Microsoft being one of the most renowned companies in the world and frequent amongst the Fortune toppers offers a lot to learn from the innovative processes it has followed for more than a decade. Founded by Bill Gates and Paul Allen on April 4, 1975 in Albuquerque(US) it is today a Multinational corporation which deals in computer software, computer hardware, research and development, gaming; a corporation that manufactures, outsources, licenses and supports a wide range of software products like Microsoft Windows, Microsoft Office, Microsoft Servers, Developer Tools, Microsoft Expression, Business Solutions, Games & Xbox 360, Windows Live, Windows Mobile. Board of Directors consists of ten people, made up of mostly company outsiders. Current members of the board of directors are: Steve Ballmer, James Cash, Jr., Dina Dublon, Bill Gates, Raymond Gilmartin, Reed Hastings, David Marquardt, Charles Noski, Helmut Panke, and Jon Shirley. There is an Executive Team which includes the Chairman and Chief Software Architect, the CEO, the General Counsel and Secretary, the Chief Financial Officer, senior and group vice presidents from the business units, the CEO of the Europe, the Middle East and Africa regions; the heads of Worldwide Sales, Marketing and Services; Human Resources; and Corporate Marketing. 1) Microsoft is one of the leading brands and one of the top companies featured in Fortune 500 list of companies. The operating system Windows,

Walt Disney Cartoons Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Walt Disney Cartoons - Essay Example The heroines are empowered in their actions, and idealized beauty is affirmed by their dressing. In this light, the texts form part of the popular discourse of femininity which encourages women to internalize gendered body norms. Women want to expose themselves in order to achieve the feminine character contained in the movies. These body styles are privileged since they adhere to the contemporary norms of feminism contained in the films. The Little Mermaid and Beauty and the Beast introduce oppressive power structures which produce the desires claimed in the movies. In The Little Mermaid, the girls are constantly posing and preening themselves, and their main function is to entertain the king. This can be considered an oppressive and objectifying presentation of women (Baker and Raney, 2007). The male characters are presented in a possessive form in these movies. In The Little Mermaid, King Triton is portrayed as portrayed as an authority figure that has to be entertained by the gir ls through song and dance. Ariel is chastised and forbidden to make outside contracts by the king. Triton acts as a patriarchic figure and has confined Ariel from her aspirations. Gaston tells Belle that women should be banned from reading or having ideas (Budd, 2005). Gaston consider Belle an accessory that he should have and does not chase her out of love. The heroines are dominated by the male figures portraying their qualities of authenticity and self-determination. The male characters have objectifying gazes of sexual desires towards the heroines. These characters portray female characters as dependent people dominated by the male figures in the society (Budd, 2005). Female figures in the cartoons such as Ariel pose with... Cartoons and animated movies have taken the center stage in the current entertainment industry. Children and teens spend much of their time watching these movies and are likely to develop negative traits and attitudes due to the message contained in them. Sexism is evident in the way women and girls are portrayed. Cartoon creators portray women as unhappy and have to seek the right man in order to find happiness. Their dressing is usually scanty exposing significant amount of skin. The homosexuals are secluded and experience violence and hostility from other characters. This has a negative impact on homosexuals in the society watching these cartoons and other children develop negative attitudes towards homosexuals. Walt Disney has existed in the entertainment industry since the 1930s and has produced several animated cartoon movies. These movies are based on the activities evident in the society. The female characters are presented as sexist by dressing them scantily in order to expose their bodies. They are given less important roles in the movies than their male counterparts. Their presentation in these movies portrays them as sexual objects that have to depend on men. Male characters are given administrative roles and work in the cities while women perform household duties. Whites are usually given good traits and are at the highest point in the social structure. Minorities such as African Americans and Arabs have negative traits and participate in activities that are cruel or inhuman. Homophobia exists where homosexual characters have negative roles and have leadership inabilities. Therefore, Disney cartoons can classified as racist, sexist and homophobic.

Several factors have helped bring Essay Example for Free

Several factors have helped bring Essay Several factors have helped bring about progress in medicine. In this essay, I will be discussing these factors. Firstly, I will be discussing how the government has helped to bring about progress in medicine. I will do this by giving an example and explaining. One good example is the measures taken by the government in Britain from the year 1900 to the year 1945. In total, there were nine acts and campaigns to improve health in Britain. This improved conditions in Britain and as a result, the death rate from illnesses and diseases decreased dramatically. Here is a table showing what the government did to improve medicine in Britain. 1902 Midwives Act, compulsory training and setting of standards. 1906 Education (Provision of Meals) Act, local authorities allowed to provide meals in elementary schools. 1907 Notification of Births Act, so that health visitors could be sure they visited all new babies. 1907 Education (Administrative Provision) Act, medical services provided for children at school. 1911 National Insurance Act, free medical treatment for workers who paid a contribution, but not their families. 1918 Maternal and child welfare Act, allowed local authorities to provide free clinics from pregnant woman and infants. 1930 Housing Act, slum clearance undertaken. 1940 Diphtheria immunisation campaign. 1940s Funding for the development of penicillin. War has helped and hindered progress in medicine in many ways. Medical help is needed mostly in wartime. In all wars soldiers were wounded this opened the possibilities for more progress in medicine. The best example is the progress made in the First World War, many things in medicine were improved because of the Great War. WWI was a massive worldwide conflict, more people died in it than in any other war before it. This was a result of new and deadly weapons being used for the first time. The most important breakthrough was through surgery, I will be discussing this later on in the essay. Many powerful guns and weapons were used this caused more severe wounds. In addition, more people were wounded this gave doctors and surgeons more opportunity to experiment with new techniques. Blood transfusion was very effectively improved, the storage and the transportation. Many recruits in the army had low standards of health. This made the government worry more and it also made them more eager to improve health care back home. The soldiers who fought in the war were promised good housing when they returned as a reward. This speeded up the process of getting rid of unhealthy slums in Britain. The soldiers, however, were never given these houses so they were in a way tricked into joining the army. In some ways, the First World War hindered the development of surgical techniques. It stopped a great deal of medical research. However, the war helped more than hindered. During the conflict surgeons did their best for the wounded but their methods, which worked well in a clean hospital operating theatre, were not so effective on a dirty battlefield. They had to develop new techniques to deal with the problems. Some of these techniques had an impact on surgery in civilian hospitals after the war. There were three main improvements in surgery, X-Rays, Blood transfusion and fighting infection. X-Rays were invented before the war but during the war, X-Rays were used for the first time. The X-Ray machine improved the success rate of surgeons in removing deeply lodged bullets and shrapnels, which would otherwise cause fatal infection. Blood transfusion had been used since the 1800s, but mysteriously it only worked sometimes. During WW1, scientists discovered that there were different blood groups and that the patient only recovered if he were given a blood transfusion with the same blood group as his own. This was an important discovery, which saved many lives. Finally, infected wounds, this was a real problem as most soldiers with wounds died from infection. During WW1, fighting infection was improved slightly. Surgeons cut away infected tissues and soaked the wound with a saline solution. War hindered progress in medicine in the following ways: Bullet wounds caused infection and powerful guns caused sever wounds, which not all doctors could cure. Millions of soldiers were killed and war stopped medical research doctors were taken away from their normal work to help the wounded in the war. I agree with the statement: chance by itself has never brought about progress in medicine. This is evident with Pasteurs discovery of a vaccine for chicken cholera. One of Pasteurs scientists injected a chicken with cholera; the scientist was confused because next day the chicken was not dead. Pasteur then asked him which cholera did he use, the scientist found out that the cholera he used was old and that it had been exposed to the air for a long time. They then injected the chicken with some fresh germs and they didnt work on the animal either. Pasteur decided the fresh germs were faulty he decided to try the fresh germs on different chickens. He found out there was nothing wrong with the fresh germs. Pasteur had found another vaccination. The old germs had protected the first group of chickens just like Jenners vaccine. Chance by itself has never brought about progress in medicine but it did play a big part in medicine but without the geniuses like Pasteur we may never have found out treatments and cures for deadly diseases.